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Foreword

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This publication is our second guide to applied budget work.  When Stefan Falk and I drafted the first guide in 1999, the International Budget Project was still quite new.  We were unsure whether the initial interest expressed by non-governmental organizations in applied budget work would continue to grow — particularly given the long-standing resistance in many countries to having open discussions and assessments of the budget — and whether it was possible to produce a document that was relevant to the diverse circumstances found in developing countries and emerging democracies.  Happily, the guide received a positive reception and interest in applied budget work continues to spread.   There are now dozens of non-governmental organizations around the globe that have integrated budget analysis into their work or whose primary focus is budget analysis.  Indeed, the work of these NGOs not only served as a source of inspiration, but also provided the many examples cited throughout this new guide.  Their efforts are confirmation that applied budget work can make a meaningful contribution to addressing the problems of the poor and to improving systems of governing.

This revised guide is a joint product of the entire staff of the International Budget Project and of other staff of the Center on Budget and Policy Priorities.  Stefan Falk and I had lead responsibility for the project, but other IBP staff — Rocio Campos, Joel Friedman, and Warren Krafchik — were partners in the endeavor, drafting entire sections and reviewing the many versions of the document.  Michelle Bazie, Toni Kayatin, Richard Kogan, Shamarukh Mohiuddin, Ellen Nissenbaum, and John Springer also provided valuable insights.  Ann Brown, Wendy Burnette, Chip Hooper, Tina Marshall, and Tom Zanol assisted in the production of the guide.

Our deep gratitude is extended to the Ford Foundation, whose financial support made this guide possible, and whose leadership has helped make the growth of applied budget work a reality.

Last, we want to extend a special thanks to the large number of NGOs whose experiences and publications we drew upon in developing this guide.  We hope that the guide is able to convey not only the richness of the work that our colleagues are advancing, but also the potential that applied budget work holds for non-governmental organizations to achieve their goals.

Isaac Shapiro
Director, International Budget Project
Center on Budget and Policy Priorities
Washington, DC   USA

Part I.   Introduction to the Guide and to Applied Budget Work

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1. OVERVIEW

“What brings us together . . . is our belief that people have a right to influence the public choices that shape our lives.  Public budgets are the chief instruments by which governments make these decisions, and civil society the greatest tool to ensure that people are part of that process.” -Jim Shultz, Democracy Center in Bolivia, at the IBP’s third conference

“How do we begin to strengthen our ability to assess and improve our government’s budget?”  This question is increasingly being asked by members of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) around the world, particularly in developing countries or countries new to democracy.  The NGOs have realized that their ability to advance their goals — whether these are to combat poverty or to strengthen democratic practices — will be enhanced if they develop a capacity to undertake budget analysis.

Non-governmental groups that are now investigating how budget work can help them achieve their goals are in a decidedly better position than were their counterparts who began to explore this work a few years ago.  In recent years, a wide range of groups in dozens of countries have begun to engage in budget work.  These groups are writing general reviews of government budgets; they are trying to advance budget literacy in their countries through budget trainings and other educational efforts; they are seeking to make budget systems more transparent and participatory; and they often have a particular concern with policies affecting the poor.  For new entrants into the field, there are many experiences that can be drawn upon.

This guide relies on these available experiences and attempts to pull together helpful guidelines to budget work into one coherent document.  It offers a systematic overview of the different aspects of effective budget analysis, with an emphasis on the activities and approaches a non-governmental organization might want to undertake in its initial years of budget work.  The guide is primarily intended for groups or individuals that have a new or relatively new interest in budget work, but it also may be of interest to those that have engaged in this work for some time and are interested in a review of the basic principles of this work, examples of useful resources, and best practices.

The International Budget Project first published A Guide to Budget Work in September 1999.  As we began to revise the guide in early 2001, it became evident almost immediately that a thorough and substantial revision was needed, reflecting the rapid growth in budget work by non-governmental groups and thus the larger number of examples to examine.  This second version of the guide consists of five parts.

Part I:  Introduction to the Guide and to Applied Budget Work.  The second chapter contains a general description of applied budget work and an examination of the factors underlying its growth.  Chapter 3 then provides some examples of applied budget groups.

Part II:  First Principles.  Chapter 4 consists of a brief introduction to the stages of the budget cycle and how NGOs can contribute at each stage, as well as a brief summary of key budget principles and key budget problems.  Chapter 5 offers some fundamental lessons for being effective at applied budget work.  These include a discussion of some of the “watchwords” for applied budget work — accuracy, accessibility, timeliness — as well as a discussion of media and dissemination issues and working with policymakers.

Part III:  Types of Applied Budget Work.  This part of the guide describes the basic areas of applied budget work that have been undertaken by groups, providing examples of such work and some pointers on selecting activities.  Chapter 6 discusses activities that can be undertaken to promote budget literacy, and Chapter 7 looks at how groups can engage in work on budget systems and processes.  Chapter 8 examines the following categories of budget analyses:  reports on the budget at the time it is released by the executive; sector-related analyses (analyses of particular budget areas, such as health or education issues); distributional or group analyses that examine the impacts of budgets on different income groups or parts of society (such as women or children); analyses linking budget and rights issues; analyses of the general economic effects of the budget; and tax and revenue analyses.

Part IV:  For Further Information.  The last two chapters of this guide point towards the resources that a reader might want to investigate to learn more about applied budget work and budget issues.  Chapter 9 summarizes the resources offered by the International Budget Project.  Chapter 10 describes the resources available in individual countries and from international institutions such as the World Bank.

Part V:  Appendices.  The appendices include:  a glossary of common budgetary terms; histories of two budget groups; the program of a budget training course; a case study of an NGO’s analysis of its government’s budget; and a map of the IBP’s website.

Most of the numerous documents referred to in the main body of the text can be accessed through the World Wide Web, and the web addresses are noted throughout this guide.  The guide is also on the IBP website; this version permits the reader to access directly the referenced documents and sites (through "hyperlinking").  The desire to highlight reports that are readily accessible through the web and that are available in English limited the number of sources, but we have tried to provide a representative sample.

In addition, the guide is available in CD-ROM form, with most of the referenced documents copied onto the CD as well.  That is, the documents are part of the CD itself to make them easier to access without an internet connection.

We hope you find the updated version of the guide useful, and we welcome any questions or suggestions.  Please contact us at:

The International Budget Project Center on Budget and Policy Priorities 820 First St., NE  Suite 510 Washington, D.C. 20002 USA Phone: 1-(202) 408-1080 Fax: 1-(202) 408-1056 Email: info@internationalbudget.org Website: www.internationalbudget.org

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2.  APPLIED BUDGET WORK: ITS GROWTH AND POTENTIAL

“DISHA — a grassroots organization in Ahmedabad, India — began to see the need for budget analysis when it lobbied the government to raise the wage rate for 1 million tribal Tendu leaf-plucker women, to regularize land rights for tribal forest land cultivators, and on other issues relating to the general welfare of communities living in Gujarat’s tribal areas.  With each struggle, a realization grew:  unless DISHA had information on the money spent by the national and state governments, it would be difficult to fairly represent the interests of tribal development.  Eventually, this realization forced DISHA to learn how to analyze the state budget.”  -M.D. Mistry, Centre for Budget Analysis and Policy Priorities, DISHA, India

At the end of 1997 the International Budget Project canvassed much of the world and found 50 people from 14 countries to attend our first conference.  Only a modest fraction of the attendees had been engaged in applied budget work — that is, budget research specifically designed to influence the policy process.  In contrast, for our third conference in November 2000, little effort was needed to “recruit” attendees, and about 100 participants attended from 25 countries.  The vast majority of the participants came from developing nations or emerging democracies.  Most of the participants had more than a year of experience in applied budget work.  The growth in the engagement of non-governmental organizations in budget work over the past few years has been nothing short of remarkable.

This chapter begins with a brief description of applied budget work.  It then describes some of the factors behind the growing interest in applied budget work before discussing a few of its potential contributions to the budget debate.  The chapter concludes with a brief examination of the role of the IBP in advancing this work.

 

2.1  What Is Applied Budget Work?

Recognizing the importance of budgets to the lives of the poor and in the development of open and participatory societies, this guide encourages non-governmental groups to engage in applied budget work.  Applied analysis is undertaken with the explicit intention of advancing policy goals, such as assisting the most disadvantaged in society.  It is not simply research for the sake of research.  While applied budget work demands quality analysis, it also requires that its findings be presented in a way that maximizes its impact on the policy debate.  The analysis must be accessible to a wide range of readers — particularly policymakers, the media, and the public — and must be available when needed to inform policy decisions.

Applied budget work also encompasses efforts to advance the understanding of budget issues.  The goals are to raise the level of budget literacy among those engaged in the budget policy debate in order to improve this debate, as well as to bring more people into the debate.

Typology of Applied Budget Work Kinds of Applied Budget Groups Applied policy institutions Academic or research institutions that have added an applied budget component Activist organizations that have added a budget research component Operate at all levels of government: national, state, local/municipal General Nature of Applied Budget Products Attempt to be accurate, accessible, and timely Strive for independent assessments Try to affect policies Main Activities of Applied Budget Work Advancing budget literacy Assessing the budget process and budget systems Analyzing budget policies Target Audiences Policymakers, both the executive and legislative branches Media Other NGOs The broad population Researchers/academics

The box above provides a typology of the kinds of groups engaged in applied budget work; of the general nature of applied budget products; of the activities of applied budget work; and of the target audiences.  This guide fills in this typology in more detail in subsequent chapters.

 

2.2  Why NGOs Are Gravitating Towards Budget Work

It seems only natural that NGO work has begun to focus on government budgets.  The budget is the most important economic policy instrument for governments.  It reflects a government's social and economic policy priorities more than any other document, translating policies, political commitments, and goals into decisions on where funds should be spent and how funds should be collected.  A well-functioning budget system is vital to the formulation of sustainable fiscal policy and facilitates economic growth.  In many countries, economic problems are exacerbated by weak budget systems and faulty budget choices.

While a government’s budget directly or indirectly affects the life of all its citizens, frequently people with modest means are influenced the most.  They tend to be harmed the most by weak economic growth or high inflation.  The current well-being of those with low incomes, and their future prospects, also can hinge on expenditure decisions in areas such as health and education.  Yet budget cuts tend to fall on programs that benefit the poor, as other items such as interest on the debt or the public-sector wage bill are more likely to have first claim on scarce funds.  Moreover, even when funds have been allocated to anti-poverty programs, weak expenditure and program management — and the lack of political power among the poor — can mean that the money never reaches the intended beneficiaries.

The budget process and budget system in a country also are crucial in determining the degree to which it has an open, democratic, and participatory system of governing.  In many countries, the general absence of information on budget issues — particularly in accessible, non-technical forms — has seriously hindered the efforts of national and local organizations to participate in the discussion on the distribution of public resources.  In addition, the ability of civil society to participate in the budget discussion can be thwarted by legal, institutional, and political barriers.  NGOs can work to address these deficiencies in budget information and the budget process, and thus improve the structure of their government’s decision-making process.

For all these reasons — the importance of the budget to the overall functioning of a country’s economy, to anti-poverty and other government policies, and to open decision-making processes — organizations and researchers have much to gain from a knowledge of budget issues.  Because the reach and impact of budget decisions are so sweeping, researchers and NGOs interested in almost any particular issue can be more effective in their work if they understand the formulation of the budget, how it becomes law, and how it is implemented.  That is, combining an in-depth knowledge of a policy issue, such as health or education, with a solid knowledge of budgets has proven to be an outstanding method of influencing policy decisions.

2.3  The International Context

The reasons, listed above, why NGOs are gravitating toward budget work are not really new.  The budget, for instance, has not suddenly become the most important economic policy document of a country.  It has been so for some time.  What is new is an international context for NGO work that has helped create fertile ground on which groups can engage budget issues.

Most notably, there have been dramatic transformations in governmental systems over the past decade.  Many countries have shifted from being closed societies to open ones, and are striving to build more democratic and participatory decision-making processes.  The goals of this ongoing process extend beyond conducting free elections.  Open and democratic societies require an informed citizenry, public participation, and governing processes that are transparent —  daunting challenges, particularly in countries that have for their entire history been ruled by non-democratic regimes.  Democratic transitions in some of these countries have led to greater availability of budget information and opportunities for those outside government to contribute to the decision-making process.

While the trend towards more open and democratic decision-making processes has been perhaps the single largest factor behind the new interest and possibilities for budget work, the timing of this growth in budget work reflects several other international developments.

• A new role for government, markets, and NGOs in addressing poverty:   There is an emerging consensus on the complementary roles of government and non-governmental actors in advancing economic development.  Today most international institutions view appropriate state, private sector, and non-profit partnerships as creating new opportunities to enhance governance and implement effective poverty-reduction strategies.

• Public expenditure management reforms:  The progress of independent budget work also reflects the adoption by many countries of new public finance practices.  These practices welcome and support greater transparency in budget systems and a larger role for the independent oversight offered by civil society and legislatures.  The desire for increased transparency, in turn, was partly driven by the notion that the lack of economic transparency was a contributing factor to the Asian financial crisis; since the crisis, the financial markets have been demanding more transparency.

• Decentralization:  Democratization has often been accompanied by a process of decentralization, which brings budgeting closer to communities and makes it more real for them.  While decentralization can complicate the coordination and monitoring of budgets nationally, it may create opportunities for greater citizen and local legislative involvement.  In particular, given the lack of capacity of many state and local institutions, decentralization opens up training and analysis opportunities for non-governmental budget groups.

2.4  Applied Budget Work and Its Potential Contributions

The idea of involving NGOs in the budget debate amounts to a substantial shift in the traditional approach to budget decision-making.  In most countries, public budgeting has long been considered the exclusive preserve of the executive.  Only recently has opening budget decision-making processes to non-executive input been considered desirable in some countries.  In many developing countries a set of powerful negative ideas have constrained the budget work of civil society, legislatures, and the media.  These include the ideas that:

• Budgets must be formulated in secret, as a more open process may upset the markets.

• Legislators and civil society advance only the interests of their constituents as opposed to the interests of the country as a whole.  Thus their participation in the budget debate skews choices away from what is best for the country.

• It is the executive's mandate to produce the budget in a closed process, and its prerogative for the budget to be rubber-stamped by the legislature.

A careful look suggests that these ideas are closer to myths. Clear, accessible public budgets can facilitate accurate private-sector planning, while secrecy may encourage destabilizing market speculation instead of steady adjustment to known policy choices. There also has been a shift in the thinking about the consequences of public debate on the budget. For example, a recent paper reviewing the experiences of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries found that greater involvement by the legislature in the budget process can be compatible with outcomes that maintain fiscal discipline. (See "Can National Legislatures Regain an Effective Voice in Budgetary Policy?" http://www1.worldbank.org/publicsector/pe/legislatures.doc.) The conclusion of this paper could well hold for the work of applied budget groups. As their engagement in the budget process deepens, budget groups are more likely to focus on issues of prioritization and improving the effectiveness and efficiency of expenditures, rather than on simply expanding the size of the budget or particular programs.

Finally, very few people would argue with the assertion that the executive branch of government has a mandate to produce the budget; but that does not mean the executive branch should entirely dominate all the stages of the budget process, or that the process should be a closed one. Moreover, there may be positive benefits for government in accepting budget groups as a complementary player in fiscal policy. There will be disagreements, but over time budget groups may be able to deliver useful information that improves budget decisions.

Constructive participation by civil society can raise the quality of the budget debate and improve budgetary outcomes through a variety of means:

• Training: Many civil society organizations develop budget training expertise that is most frequently directed at augmenting the analytical and advocacy capacity of other civil society organizations and legislatures. This results in stronger interventions and oversight. Several groups also provide training for government departments and international institutions.

• Highlighting crucial information and policy issues: Civil society budget groups often have substantial capacity to analyze the budget from the perspective of the poor. They are able to be in close, regular contact with different sectors of society and interest groups and feed these perspectives into the budget decision-making process. They can highlight important information and policy issues that might not otherwise receive enough attention.

• Identifying best practices: Independent analysis can help identify local and international best practices that assist government departments and legislatures in making better budget policy.

• Building accountability: Through their analyses, civil society organizations can reinforce channels of accountability. This may occur, for example, when groups provide accessible information to citizens and the legislature on the findings of the Auditor General.

Overall, civil society groups have the potential to make the budget more accessible and understandable to a wider range of stakeholders outside the executive — from the legislature to interest groups — that might otherwise view the budget as too arcane and confusing to warrant their attention. Applied budget work can help to "demystify" the budget for these stakeholders and bring them into the important debate on how to allocate a country's resources to meet its most pressing needs.

2.5  The International Budget Project

The International Budget Project of the Center on Budget and Policy Priorities was started in 1997 with the goal of assisting in the growth of independent, applied budget work around the world. The IBP assists non-governmental organizations and researchers in their efforts both to analyze budget policies and to improve budget processes, systems, and institutions. The project is especially interested in promoting and assisting with applied research on the effects of budget policies on the poor. The IBP works mostly with organizations that conduct analysis in developing countries or in countries new to democracy.

The IBP helps organize conferences and workshops; maintains a resource base of NGO budget work; conducts research on budget issues; facilitates the exchange of information among budget researchers and groups; provides technical assistance and training; and strives to raise the profile of budget work. The project also attempts to prepare educational materials, of which this guide is a primary effort. Chapter 9 of this Guide provides a detailed description of the various resources the IBP offers in our attempt to help advance applied budget work.

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3. EXAMPLES OF APPLIED BUDGET GROUPS

"Strategy runs a project called 'creating a budget people can understand and influence,' which aims to make the budget process more transparent and expand the participation of NGOs. The project began in St. Petersburg, working directly with key people in the city's finance department who understand the need for transparency. Strategy also acts as a mediator for the needs of NGOs and the public for information about the budget and participation, running awareness raising programs through public hearings and generating publications to demystify the budget and highlight important issues." -Alexander Sungurov, President of Strategy, Russia, at the IBP's third conference

No matter what region of the world you are from, no matter the role of civil society in your country, no matter what issues you work on, there are likely to be some thought-provoking examples of NGO budget work that have emerged in recent years. These groups are active at all levels of government (national, state, and local); are operating in a broad spectrum of governmental environments; and have an assortment of backgrounds, ranging from grassroots activists to academic researchers.

To provide a flavor of what type of applied groups have emerged, and the nature of their work, this chapter briefly describes three of the more experienced organizations from different parts of the world. These organizations have six to 20 years of applied budget work experience. The chapter concludes with references to a variety of other groups that are emerging and to available case studies.

3.1  The Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, United States

The International Budget Project is part of the Center on Budget and Policy Priorities. The Center, located in Washington, D.C., examines data and conducts research on how budget, tax, and government programs affect low- and moderate-income people. The Center is not a grass roots organization, nor is it an academic institution. It explicitly thinks of itself as "an applied policy institution" that engages in research that can help inform the policy discussion. Its funding comes from private foundations; it receives no government funds. For two decades the Center has produced analytic reports that are designed to be accessible to public officials, nonprofit organizations, and the media. The Center's analyses are often relatively short, in part so they can be prepared in a timely manner and have an influence on ongoing policy debates.

The Center began in 1981 with a staff of three people who focused on some general national budget issues and U.S. programs to combat hunger. The Center has grown considerably since then, and now employs close to 70 people. But this growth followed a gradual path, as the Center expanded only into those areas in which it already had expertise, or could develop expertise. The Center realized that its credibility in one area of work affected its credibility in all other areas of work, and that the credibility of its research is central to its effectiveness. At the national level, the Center now has expertise in the budget process, tax issues, and a range of anti-poverty programs such as health care, housing, food assistance, income assistance, and pensions. Most of its professional staff consists of researchers, but there are also staff dedicated specifically to relations with the media as well as staff dedicated specifically to relations with public officials.

During its first decade, the Center focused primarily on national issues. In 1992, the Center formally expanded its programs to encompass both national and state-level analysis. Through this new work, the Center developed expertise in helping state-based budget and tax organizations share information, and has provided technical assistance to these groups to help them increase their ability to conduct effective analysis (see http://www.cbpp.org/sfai.htm). The Center also has an outreach project that aims to ensure that low-income people actually receive the government benefits to which they are legally entitled. The International Budget Project of the Center, established in 1997, is the organization's newest unit.

Appendix I is a presentation on the evolution of the Center. The Center has a website (http://www.cbpp.org) that has received as many as 800,000 "hits" in a month and contains all the main reports it has prepared since 1996. In the first half of 2001 alone, the Center released more than 100 reports on budget, tax, and poverty issues.

3.2   The Budget Information Service of Idasa, South Africa

The Budget Information Service (BIS) of the Institute for Democracy in South Africa (Idasa) analyzes the allocation and use of public resources to understand the impact of South Africa's budget on the poor. Idasa is an independent, non-profit public interest organization promoting democracy. BIS's first priority is to enhance the advocacy and policy-making efforts of civil society and legislatures. BIS believes that civil society can add value to the economic choices government makes, and that wider participation in the budget process can help broaden agreement on these choices.

With the demise of apartheid, South Africa held democratic elections in 1994. BIS was launched in 1995, at the same time that the new national parliamentarians in South Africa faced their first full budget process. Its initial efforts included briefing each of the national assembly and senate portfolio committees. These briefings formed the basis of its first training packages developed for civil society. These training packages have become more refined over time, and now include flexible one- to three-day courses that provide information on current budget issues and tools to play a role in the budget decision-making process. BIS's work focuses on the Health, Education, and Welfare departments — where the majority of social expenditures take place — and concentrates on the position of women, children, and the disabled, who form a large proportion of the poorest and most vulnerable members of South African society.

BIS produces accessible analyses of budgetary and socio-economic issues. BIS disseminates its material through various media (print, electronic and radio). Its work takes the following forms:

• Monitoring national and provincial budgets and budgetary processes;

• Undertaking research and analysis that can be used during the policy and budget process;

• Taking up issues that are at the core of transparency and access to the budget system, such as the amendment powers of the legislature;

• Conducting budgetary training; and

• Coordinating the Africa Budget Project, which supports the advancement of applied budget work throughout Africa.

For further information on the budget project at Idasa, please see the BIS website (http://www.idasa.org.za/bis) or the transcript from the presentation on BIS work given at the second conference of the IBP, which can be found at (http://www.internationalbudget.org/conference/2nd/idasa.htm).

3.3  Centre for Budget Analysis and Policy Priorities, Development Initiative for Social and Human Action (DISHA), India

Founded in 1985, DISHA is a membership organization devoted to organizing and unionizing forest laborers and building capacity in local organizations working on issues that affect people in the tribal areas of Gujarat state in western India. Since 1992 DISHA has been working on state-level policy issues through budget analysis and policy advocacy to advance the interests of its members. The unusual blend of public mobilization, institution building among the poor, and lobbying among multiple political circles has given unique depth and credibility to DISHA's work. The budget work recently became part of a unit called the Centre for Budget Analysis and Policy Priorities.

In its training programs and budget analysis, DISHA has a clear pro-poor emphasis. It studies the pattern of spending and examines the poverty policies of the government as expressed by its budget allocations. Since DISHA has a clear constituency among the poor, it feels it has a mandate to advocate its views to government and help other social justice groups in India obtain the necessary information to advance the fight for equity and social justice.

DISHA gave serious thought to how it could make its analyses of budget issues stand out from the piles of papers that elected officials received from the government each day during the budget session. DISHA decided to prepare notes that were short — six pages long at the most. DISHA sent these short analyses to government ministers and bureaucrats, and also to the press, academic institutions, and voluntary agencies. Before long, DISHA found that many members of the state assembly had become "addicted" to its notes.

DISHA found that the word "budget" is enough to turn off most social activists, including, at first, those in its own group. Debate and studies on national and state budgets have traditionally been the domain of academics and researchers. DISHA discovered, however, that budget analysis can be a powerful tool for grassroots groups to use in dealings with the government.

See Appendix II for the story of the development of DISHA. This appendix consists of an article written by the founder of DISHA's budget work, and includes this observation: "The budget is prepared by a very small group of people in the bureaucracy. Knowing the process breaks this monopoly."

3.4   A Variety of Experiences Are Emerging

Our own list of NGOs engaged in budget work includes groups from throughout the world. The "groups section" on our website currently contains short descriptions of budget NGOs and researchers from the following countries: Argentina, Bangladesh, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Croatia, Egypt, Germany, Ghana, India, Indonesia, Israel, Kenya, Lebanon, Malawi, Mexico, Mozambique, Namibia, Nepal, Nigeria, Peru, the Philippines, Poland, Russia, South Africa, Sweden, Tanzania, Uganda, the United States, and the West Bank/Palestine. Contact information is included on the website, and the groups typically would be glad to establish an exchange of information. This list, moreover, continues to grow steadily. (See http://www.internationalbudget.org/groups/index.htm.)

In short, it is important for new budget groups to remember that they are not alone. There are many models that can be adopted and modified. To mention just a couple of the efforts that have begun in the past few years:

• The Centre for Budget and Policy Studies in Bangalore, India. This research-oriented organization works on municipal and state budget issues in southern India.

• Centro de Investigación y Docencia Económicas (CIDE) in Mexico City. CIDE is an academic research institution; its budget work focuses on national and sub-national issues and includes both budget education and budget analyses.

• St. Petersburg Strategy Center, Russia (Strategia). Strategia is an activist organization that engages in budget analysis work at the city level in St. Petersburg and has been instrumental in organizing groups and researchers from around Russia to engage in budget transparency work.

Short case studies of the development of these three organizations are available. Please see http://www.internationalbudget.org/resources/success.htm. In addition, presentations about the development of budget work at the Centre for Budget and Policy Studies and CIDE were made at the IBP's second conference and can be found at http://www.internationalbudget.org/conference/2nd/india.htm and http://www.internationalbudget.org/conference/2nd/cide.htm.

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